With a current population of 1.17 billion people, India has the title of the second most populated country in the world (CIA World Factbook). India is a diverse place on so many levels.Contrasts are found in every corner from it's varied topography, many languages, social classes, distribution of wealth, climate, and religions. I will be focusing on religion in the ancient city of Vijayanagara. I will provide brief information about the city's background and current day religions in India, but primarily focusing on religion and religious meaning in the ancient city through researching the shrines and temples. The purpose of this research will be to better understand the city as a whole and it's importance in space and time, and also to better understand the role of religion in Vijayanagara during the city's peak and understand why it fell out of existence. The Art of India and the Social Status and Occupation in Ancient India are my classmates wiki's, they offer great information and provide context for better understanding ancient India.
A Brief Background and History of Vijaynanagara
The name Vijayanagara, when translated in English means “City of Victory.” It is located in the present day city of Hampi, in the southern state Karnataka. The city and capital of Vijayanagara was founded in the 1330s by the Sangama brothers Bukka and Harihara. This multifaceted city was the capital of a powerful empire and had a population of approximately 250,000 people (Mack, 60). The Vijayanagara kings patronized the arts, philosophy, temple building, and other forms of “Hindu” expression (Clothey, 138). It was a city with immense religious meaning, and many set out on pilgrimages to the city. Apart from being a huge religious center, the area surrounding the city also gave way to it's initial success. The fertile soils and arable lands made agriculture and development a possibility lending to it's development. The ruins of the city lie on the southern bank of the Tungabhadra River in the Deccan plateau in central Karnataka (Mack, 60). The Tungabhadra River forms the northern boundary of the city. Most of the major temple complexes are found in the area immediately south of the river (Mack, 60). In 1565, the city was looted and occupied by the Deccan sultans and Vijayanagara never fully recovered from the looting.
Vijayanagara
Religious and Mythical Meanings at Vijayanagara
Hindu deities were worshipped at Vijayanagara from around the mid-fourteenth century to 1565 AD. The first documented pilgrimage to Vijayanagara was to visit the goddess Pampa. Research has led scholars to believe the goddess Pampa was perhaps an aquatic deity, due to many references of her as a river or lake. While Pampa originated as a local deity, she was eventually associated with the larger pan-Indian religious traditions by marrying Virupaksha, an incarnation of Shiva, one of the major Hindu deities (Verghese, 94). By the twelfth century, the site had become the center of the Virupaksha cult, and that temple continues to serve as a pilgrimage center today. Despite her presumed early importance, worship of Pampa is today limited to a small shrine in the Virupaksha temple complex (Mack, 61). Within the cities boundaries, the Virupaksha temple is the only active pilgrimage temple today (Mack, 62). The temples of Vijayanagara served not only as religious devotion centers, they also served to reinforce the power structures of the ruling kings. The beautiful and ornate temples attracted people from all over making it a must-see destination and grand religious capital.
All throughout the year, many people who practice Hinduism still travel to the city's ancient ruins and temples on pilgrimages. Vijayanagara, present-day Hampi, is the settting for many ancient Indian legends and stories, including the story of Virupaksha's marriage to Pampa. The engagement which takes place in November, includes a ceremony in which the gods are serenaded by priests as their barge is rowed around the temple tank (Vijayanagara Research Project). In April, the marriage takes place, two chariots are are pulled along the streets of the city to celebrate the union of Pampa to Virupaksha. Pilgrimages to the site offers devotees a connection and firsthand experience to the texts and ancient stories of Vijayanagara.
The Virupaksha Temple
The Virupaksha temple is the only activelyworshipped shrine at the site of Vijaynagara, it is also the oldest. This temple is of great importance to worshippers of the deity Shiva. The temple contains the shrines of Shiva, Pampa and Bhuvaneswari (Karnataka.com). It was built in approximately 740 AD by Lokamahadevi, the Queen of Vikaramadiya (Archaeological Survey of India). “The very origin of Hampi's history as a sacred place revolves around the myths associated with this temple. It is believed that this temple has been functioning uninterruptedly ever since its inception in the 7th century AD. That makes this one of the oldest functioning temples in India” (Hampi.in). The temple has a 120 feet tall tower on it's eastern entrance. According to the Archaeological Survey of India, the whole of the interior of this temple is embellished with elegant carvings and aesthetically modeled sculptures. Also, flora, fauna and geometrical patterns adorn various parts of the temple (Archaeological Survey of India).
Virupaksha Temple
Pillars inside Virupaksha Temple
This short video shows Virupaksha temple form different angles and also shows the intricate details of the stone work on the pillars
Vitthala Temple Complex
One of the largest temple complexes at Vijayanagara is the Vitthala temple complex. The approximate size of the temple is just over 107,639 square feet with 56 musical pillars! According to architectural evidence, it is believed that the temple was not built until after 1500. The temple complex is enclosed by a high-walled enclosure, with gateways to the east, south, and north (Mack, 66). The lay-out of the temple is typical for the time period. The Tungabhadra River flows in a northeasterly direction approximately 100 meters west of the temple (Mack 66). The main temple consists of the sanctuary and the antechamber, which are surrounded by a circumambulatory passageway, and enclosed by open pavilions (Mack, 66). According to Verghese, The Vitthala temple was, undoubtedly, the chief center of religious activity in the city, overshadowing in importance even the temple to Virupaksha, the principal deity of Hampi (Verghese, 425). The famous Stone Chariot is located at Vitthala. As you can see it is remarkably detailed and truly intricate, the stone wheels of the chariot revolve. The chariot serves as an example of the very chariots that royalty rode on during religious processions.
Religions at Vijayanagara and in India Today
Hinduism was definitely the dominating religion in Vijayanagara and across India both in the past and presently. Along with Hinduism, the kings of Vijayanagara also permitted the practice of other religions. These religions included Jainism and Islam. Jainism religion, according to the Encyclopedia Britannica, was established in India during the 7th and 5th centuries BC. Jainism's core belief is 'ashimsa,' or non-injury to all living things (Encyclopedia Britannica). At the site today, there are remains of six Jaina temples, and two mosques. Currently, Jainism has some four million adherents, mostly in India but with substantial groups of Jains in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and other parts of the English-speaking world (Lopez, 18). The earliest dated temple at the site is a Jaina temple. Today, India is comprised of several religions, the most prevalent include, Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, and Judaism (Historical Society of Pennsylvania). Out of the aforementioned religions, Hinduism is the most common. Hinduism is now and probably has been at all times the most prevalent religious persuasion of the subcontinent. According to the most recent census figures, 83 percent of India's population is classified as Hindu, a total of perhaps 700 million Hindus (Lopez, 5)
The Battle of Talikota and the Fallen Empire
The Battle of Talikota on January 26, 1565 marked the beginning of the end of the Vijayanagara Empire. The battle was fought between the Vijayanagara Empire and the Deccan sultanates. The Deccan kings had around 80,000 infantry and 30,000 calvary. Whereas, Vijayanagara had 140,000 foot soldiers and 10,000 soldiers on horseback. Each army had a substantial amount of war elephants. It was a short, yet intense battle (New world Encyclopedia). As a result of the battle, many of the beautiful temples and religious sites were destroyed and buried in history, leaving behind ruins of the once victorious city. Pillage and plunder immediately followed the battle. It was a clear and complete victory for the sultanates. (New World Encyclopedia). So why have people referred to Vijayanagara as the “forgotten empire?” How did such as powerful empire filled with tremendous religious meaning, a strong economy, and natural resources fall so easily? Vijayanagara is no longer the name of the area or city, it has since been renamed Hampi in honor of Pampa. Although the city was taken over and looted, there still remains a substantial amount of archaeological evidence and architecture, bringing researchers, scholars, travelers and pilgrims to the site. There are theories suggesting the possible reasons for the fall of the empire. Some include, overconfidence and arrogance and lack of foresight amongst the royalty and leaders of the city. These are just theories and perhaps no one will ever know the specific reasons for the fall of the empire, making it all the more mysterious.
Current Research
The Vijayanagara Research Project website found here, provides a great deal of information about the ancient city. The Vijayanagara Research Project began it's work in 1980. With the use of photography, mapping, measuring, and statistical and written descriptions they have been able to uncover a wealth of information. Since the projects establishment, the efforts and work done has been astounding. They have mapped more than 25 square kilometers of the the ruins and more than 30,000 archaeological features were located and described. Some 1,000 structures, ranging from large-scale, comparatively well preserved temple complexes to dilapidated and collapsed structures, were measured and drawn up. (Vijayanagara Reseach Project).
Conclusion
The ancient city of Vijayanagara is a fascinating site. From the ruins, temples, and artifacts that remain, they all provide great understanding of certain aspects of religion and life in southern India during the fourteenth, fifthteenth, and sixteenth centuries. Vijayanagara offers a glimpse into the past, and the temple ruins are remnants of the picturesque sacred landscape that once filled the land. Ancient Civilizations, by Scarre and Fagan, in my opinion, accurately sums up the importance of acrhaeological data, "only archaeological data provides us with a scientific basis for understanding the preindustrial civilizations in true chronological and cultural perspective" (p.512). From archaeology we can have better sources of ethnohistorical information and a better understanding of the volatility of a civilization. Understanding different civilizations and the outcome of their existence is not something that can be figured out by a formula or past trend. Each is very different, but as the text explains, “record of the past shows that many of the same forces that beset out forebears still lurk as unpredictable rapids on the ever-flowing stream of time” (p. 513). Perhaps looking into the past for answers can help us grasp a better understanding of the future. For some, Vijayanagara still stands as a site for religious pilgrimage and for others it is merely a vanished empire that failed to withstand the pressures of New World.
Links to Other Students Related Wiki's
This is a list to other student's wiki pages related to my area of focus from the topics of India and also other civilizations religions.
Book Sources: 1. Clothey, F.W. Developments in the Late Medieval Period. Religion in India: A Historical Introduction. New York, NY. Routledge. 2006.
2. Lopez, D.S. Introduction. Religions of India in Practice. Princeton, New Jersey. Princeton University Press. 1995.
3. Scarre, Cristopher and Brian M. Fagan. Ancient Civilizations. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2008. Print.
JSTOR Database Articles: 4. Mack, A. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory. One Landscape, Many Experiences: Differing Perspectives of the Temple Districts of Vijayanagara. Vol. 11, No. 1, Recent Advances in the Archaeology of Place, Part 1 (Mar., 2004), pp. 59-81
5. Verghese, A. World Archaeology. Deities, Cults and Kings at Vijayanagara. Vol. 36, No. 3, The Archaeology of Hinduism (Sep., 2004), pp. 416-431
Religion in India: The City of Vijayanagara
Introduction
With a current population of 1.17 billion people, India has the title of the second most populated country in the world (CIA World Factbook). India is a diverse place on so many levels.Contrasts are found in every corner from it's varied topography, many languages, social classes, distribution of wealth, climate, and religions. I will be focusing on religion in the ancient city of Vijayanagara. I will provide brief information about the city's background and current day religions in India, but primarily focusing on religion and religious meaning in the ancient city through researching the shrines and temples. The purpose of this research will be to better understand the city as a whole and it's importance in space and time, and also to better understand the role of religion in Vijayanagara during the city's peak and understand why it fell out of existence. The Art of India and the Social Status and Occupation in Ancient India are my classmates wiki's, they offer great information and provide context for better understanding ancient India.
A Brief Background and History of Vijaynanagara
The name Vijayanagara, when translated in English means “City of Victory.” It is located in the present day city of Hampi, in the southern state Karnataka. The city and capital of Vijayanagara was founded in the 1330s by the Sangama brothers Bukka and Harihara. This multifaceted city was the capital of a powerful empire and had a population of approximately 250,000 people (Mack, 60). The Vijayanagara kings patronized the arts, philosophy, temple building, and other forms of “Hindu” expression (Clothey, 138). It was a city with immense religious meaning, and many set out on pilgrimages to the city. Apart from being a huge religious center, the area surrounding the city also gave way to it's initial success. The fertile soils and arable lands made agriculture and development a possibility lending to it's development. The ruins of the city lie on the southern bank of the Tungabhadra River in the Deccan plateau in central Karnataka (Mack, 60). The Tungabhadra River forms the northern boundary of the city. Most of the major temple complexes are found in the area immediately south of the river (Mack, 60). In 1565, the city was looted and occupied by the Deccan sultans and Vijayanagara never fully recovered from the looting.
Religious and Mythical Meanings at Vijayanagara
Hindu deities were worshipped at Vijayanagara from around the mid-fourteenth century to 1565 AD. The first documented pilgrimage to Vijayanagara was to visit the goddess Pampa. Research has led scholars to believe the goddess Pampa was perhaps an aquatic deity, due to many references of her as a river or lake. While Pampa originated as a local deity, she was eventually associated with the larger pan-Indian religious traditions by marrying Virupaksha, an incarnation of Shiva, one of the major Hindu deities (Verghese, 94). By the twelfth century, the site had become the center of the Virupaksha cult, and that temple continues to serve as a pilgrimage center today. Despite her presumed early importance, worship of Pampa is today limited to a small shrine in the Virupaksha temple complex (Mack, 61). Within the cities boundaries, the Virupaksha temple is the only active pilgrimage temple today (Mack, 62). The temples of Vijayanagara served not only as religious devotion centers, they also served to reinforce the power structures of the ruling kings. The beautiful and ornate temples attracted people from all over making it a must-see destination and grand religious capital.
All throughout the year, many people who practice Hinduism still travel to the city's ancient ruins and temples on pilgrimages. Vijayanagara, present-day Hampi, is the settting for many ancient Indian legends and stories, including the story of Virupaksha's marriage to Pampa. The engagement which takes place in November, includes a ceremony in which the gods are serenaded by priests as their barge is rowed around the temple tank (Vijayanagara Research Project). In April, the marriage takes place, two chariots are are pulled along the streets of the city to celebrate the union of Pampa to Virupaksha. Pilgrimages to the site offers devotees a connection and firsthand experience to the texts and ancient stories of Vijayanagara.
The Virupaksha Temple
The Virupaksha temple is the only actively worshipped shrine at the site of Vijaynagara, it is also the oldest. This temple is of great importance to worshippers of the deity Shiva. The temple contains the shrines of Shiva, Pampa and Bhuvaneswari (Karnataka.com). It was built in approximately 740 AD by Lokamahadevi, the Queen of Vikaramadiya (Archaeological Survey of India). “The very origin of Hampi's history as a sacred place revolves around the myths associated with this temple. It is believed that this temple has been functioning uninterruptedly ever since its inception in the 7th century AD. That makes this one of the oldest functioning temples in India” (Hampi.in). The temple has a 120 feet tall tower on it's eastern entrance. According to the Archaeological Survey of India, the whole of the interior of this temple is embellished with elegant carvings and aesthetically modeled sculptures. Also, flora, fauna and geometrical patterns adorn various parts of the temple (Archaeological Survey of India).
This short video shows Virupaksha temple form different angles and also shows the intricate details of the stone work on the pillars
Vitthala Temple Complex
One of the largest temple complexes at Vijayanagara is the Vitthala temple complex. The approximate size of the temple is just over 107,639 square feet with 56 musical pillars! According to architectural evidence, it is believed that the temple was not built until after 1500. The temple complex is enclosed by a high-walled enclosure, with gateways to the east, south, and north (Mack, 66). The lay-out of the temple is typical for the time period. The Tungabhadra River flows in a northeasterly direction approximately 100 meters west of the temple (Mack 66). The main temple consists of the sanctuary and the antechamber, which are surrounded by a circumambulatory passageway, and enclosed by open pavilions (Mack, 66). According to Verghese, The Vitthala temple was, undoubtedly, the chief center of religious activity in the city, overshadowing in importance even the temple to Virupaksha, the principal deity of Hampi (Verghese, 425). The famous Stone Chariot is located at Vitthala. As you can see it is remarkably detailed and truly intricate, the stone wheels of the chariot revolve. The chariot serves as an example of the very chariots that royalty rode on during religious processions.
Religions at Vijayanagara and in India Today
Hinduism was definitely the dominating religion in Vijayanagara and across India both in the past and presently. Along with Hinduism, the kings of Vijayanagara also permitted the practice of other religions. These religions included Jainism and Islam. Jainism religion, according to the Encyclopedia Britannica, was established in India during the 7th and 5th centuries BC. Jainism's core belief is 'ashimsa,' or non-injury to all living things (Encyclopedia Britannica). At the site today, there are remains of six Jaina temples, and two mosques. Currently, Jainism has some four million adherents, mostly in India but with substantial groups of Jains in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and other parts of the English-speaking world (Lopez, 18). The earliest dated temple at the site is a Jaina temple. Today, India is comprised of several religions, the most prevalent include, Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, and Judaism (Historical Society of Pennsylvania). Out of the aforementioned religions, Hinduism is the most common. Hinduism is now and probably has been at all times the most prevalent religious persuasion of the subcontinent. According to the most recent census figures, 83 percent of India's population is classified as Hindu, a total of perhaps 700 million Hindus (Lopez, 5)
The Battle of Talikota and the Fallen Empire
The Battle of Talikota on January 26, 1565 marked the beginning of the end of the Vijayanagara Empire. The battle was fought between the Vijayanagara Empire and the Deccan sultanates. The Deccan kings had around 80,000 infantry and 30,000 calvary. Whereas, Vijayanagara had 140,000 foot soldiers and 10,000 soldiers on horseback. Each army had a substantial amount of war elephants. It was a short, yet intense battle (New world Encyclopedia). As a result of the battle, many of the beautiful temples and religious sites were destroyed and buried in history, leaving behind ruins of the once victorious city. Pillage and plunder immediately followed the battle. It was a clear and complete victory for the sultanates. (New World Encyclopedia). So why have people referred to Vijayanagara as the “forgotten empire?” How did such as powerful empire filled with tremendous religious meaning, a strong economy, and natural resources fall so easily? Vijayanagara is no longer the name of the area or city, it has since been renamed Hampi in honor of Pampa. Although the city was taken over and looted, there still remains a substantial amount of archaeological evidence and architecture, bringing researchers, scholars, travelers and pilgrims to the site. There are theories suggesting the possible reasons for the fall of the empire. Some include, overconfidence and arrogance and lack of foresight amongst the royalty and leaders of the city. These are just theories and perhaps no one will ever know the specific reasons for the fall of the empire, making it all the more mysterious.
Current Research
The Vijayanagara Research Project website found here, provides a great deal of information about the ancient city. The Vijayanagara Research Project began it's work in 1980. With the use of photography, mapping, measuring, and statistical and written descriptions they have been able to uncover a wealth of information. Since the projects establishment, the efforts and work done has been astounding. They have mapped more than 25 square kilometers of the the ruins and more than 30,000 archaeological features were located and described. Some 1,000 structures, ranging from large-scale, comparatively well preserved temple complexes to dilapidated and collapsed structures, were measured and drawn up. (Vijayanagara Reseach Project).
Conclusion
The ancient city of Vijayanagara is a fascinating site. From the ruins, temples, and artifacts that remain, they all provide great understanding of certain aspects of religion and life in southern India during the fourteenth, fifthteenth, and sixteenth centuries. Vijayanagara offers a glimpse into the past, and the temple ruins are remnants of the picturesque sacred landscape that once filled the land. Ancient Civilizations, by Scarre and Fagan, in my opinion, accurately sums up the importance of acrhaeological data, "only archaeological data provides us with a scientific basis for understanding the preindustrial civilizations in true chronological and cultural perspective" (p.512). From archaeology we can have better sources of ethnohistorical information and a better understanding of the volatility of a civilization. Understanding different civilizations and the outcome of their existence is not something that can be figured out by a formula or past trend. Each is very different, but as the text explains, “record of the past shows that many of the same forces that beset out forebears still lurk as unpredictable rapids on the ever-flowing stream of time” (p. 513). Perhaps looking into the past for answers can help us grasp a better understanding of the future. For some, Vijayanagara still stands as a site for religious pilgrimage and for others it is merely a vanished empire that failed to withstand the pressures of New World.
Links to Other Students Related Wiki's
This is a list to other student's wiki pages related to my area of focus from the topics of India and also other civilizations religions.
1. Matthew Filiault: Art of India
2. Danielle Voss: Social Status and Occupation in Ancient India
3. Stephanie Taylor: Preparations for Death in Ancient Egypt wiki: Death Preparation in Egypt
4. Jacqueline Deming: Angkor Wat
Works Cited
Book Sources:
1. Clothey, F.W. Developments in the Late Medieval Period. Religion in India: A Historical Introduction. New York, NY. Routledge. 2006.
2. Lopez, D.S. Introduction. Religions of India in Practice. Princeton, New Jersey. Princeton University Press. 1995.
3. Scarre, Cristopher and Brian M. Fagan. Ancient Civilizations. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2008. Print.
JSTOR Database Articles:
4. Mack, A. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory. One Landscape, Many Experiences: Differing Perspectives of the Temple Districts of Vijayanagara. Vol. 11, No. 1, Recent Advances in the Archaeology of Place, Part 1 (Mar., 2004), pp. 59-81
5. Verghese, A. World Archaeology. Deities, Cults and Kings at Vijayanagara. Vol. 36, No. 3, The Archaeology of Hinduism (Sep., 2004), pp. 416-431
Online Sources:
6. New World Encyclopedia. Ancient City of Vijayanagara. Available at:
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Ancient_City_of_Vijayanagara. Accessed on November 11, 2010. Accessed on November 11, 2010.
7. Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factook. South Asia: India. Available at:
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html Accessed on November 11, 2010. Accessed on November 11, 2010.
8. Vijayanagara Research Project. Mythical Landscape. Available at: http://www.vijayanagara.org/HTML/Myt_Land.html Accessed on December 4, 2010.
9. Archaeological Survey of India. Virupaksha Temple. Available at: http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ptdkl_monu_virupaksha.aspAccessed on Decemeber 4, 2010. 10. Hampi India. Virupaksha India. Available at: http://www.hampi.in/virupaksha-temple.htm Accessed December 4, 2010. 11. Hampi World Heritage Site. Hampi. Available at: http://www.karnataka.com/tourism/hampi/ Accessed December 5, 2010
Image References (Order of Appearance)
1. Map of India. Available at: http://jambudveep.wordpress.com/2010/06/26/battle-of-raichur/
2. Vijayanagara architecture. Available at: http://www.rainbowskill.com/tour-to-india/karnataka-tour/the-famous-hampi-in-karnataka.php
3. Shiva. Available at: http://scriptures.ru/india/murtis/indexen.htm
4. Ganesh. Available at: http://stockmarkettoday.in/2009/08/19/ganpati-wallpapers-ganesh-wallpapers/
5. Virupaksha Temple. Available at: http://photos.igougo.com/images/p217866-Hampi-Virupaksha_Temple.jpg
6. Pillars of Virupaksha. Available at: http://travel.paintedstork.com/blog/2005/09
7. Vitthala illuminated. Available at: http://www.vijayanagara.org/HTML/Vitthala.html
8. Stone Chariot. Available at: http://www.vijayanagara.org/HTML/Vitthala.html
Video Reference
1. Virupaksha Temple. Youtube video. Available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8CS6pRwmvW8